Archive for 2021-05-09

Overview

Due to the globalization and diversity, managers need to lead employees from different cultural backgrounds, values and beliefs that are different to themselves (Maxwell et al., 2000). As a result of these differences, it might be difficult for leaders to maintain relationships with employees and improve employee performance (Testa, 2009).

This post aims to find the differences of various cultures, implications of managing different cultures and solutions to mitigate culture clashes.

Hofestede’s cultural dimensions

Hofstede (2011) asserts that a culture has certain dimensions which are based on how the majority of the people in the countries behave. Table 1 states the dimensions on which a culture can be assessed.

Figure 1: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions

(Source: Hofstede, 2011)

Applying Hofstede’s dimensions to Sri Lankan Organizations

Power Distance

Based on graph 1, Sri Lanka has a power distance of 80 which means it has a high power distance and a hierarchical society in which operations are centralized and such organizations mostly follow an autocratic leadership style where employees are given orders (Irfan, 2016).

Individualism

According to graph 1, Sri Lanka has obtained a low score of 35 which demonstrates that there is less independence and more interdependence between each other therefore it is categorized as a collectivist culture. In organizations, employees have strong connections with each other, family and community and try to achieve group goals instead of individual goals (Jayatilleke and Gunawardena, 2016).

Masculinity

Sri Lanka demonstrates a low score of 10 based on graph 1 which means that it displays a feminine culture where quality of life is focused and employees work in order to live rather than success or status (Hofstede, 2021).

Uncertainty Avoidance

An intermediate score of 45 based on graph 1 suggests that the organizations in Sri Lanka are much more tolerant to uncertainty and change their strategies based on risks rather than avoiding it (Hofstede, 2021).

Long term Orientation

Based on graph 1, with an intermediary score of 45, Sri Lankan organizations tend to have close ties with traditions and customs and doesn’t like change (Hofstede, 2021).

Graph 1: Hofstede’s cultural dimensions of Sri Lanka

(Source: Hofstede, 2021)

Cross-cultural Management

Lassere (2012) asserts that culture in a management perspective consists of various dimensions which includes Organizational culture, industry culture, professional culture and national culture out of which the main complexity arises from organizational culture and national culture.

Cross cultural management is defined as ‘procedures and policies relating to the management of workforces with different cultural backgrounds and moderating the impact of cultural differences on the execution of management tasks’ (Soderberg and Holden, 2002, p. 103).

Graph 2 illustrates the Hofstede’s cultural differences between several countries. Due to the differences between certain countries, it is important for managers to adapt methods to manage each individual accordingly.

Graph 2: Differences in culture of Australia, South Africa, United Kingdom and USA

(Source: Hofstede, 2021)

Video 1 describes the reasons why Starbucks which is a renowned coffee brand in USA failed to attract the Australian market due to differences in culture where the Australians thought of coffee as a meeting place to share it with friends and family so they had an emotional attachment to it but Starbucks was introduced to the Australian market merely as a product like in the USA. Whereas USA based Gloria Jean’s coffee was successful as it adapted its menu and strategies based on the coffee culture of Australians.

Video 1: The reasons Starbucks failed and Gloria Jean’s strived in Australia

(Source: CNBC, 2018)

Strategies for successful cross cultural management

Organizations should be sensitive to the national culture

Organizational culture often reflects national culture, therefore before a business spreads to other countries, it is important for organizations to analyze the national culture, their traditions, values and beliefs (Robbins and Judge, 2013).

Should develop the skill of ‘listening to understand’

Leaders should listen to others because they can gain a lot of knowledge from other individuals and listening conveys a sign of respect for others (Moran et al., 2011).

Proper cross-cultural training should be conducted

Holistic trainings which includes lectures, simulation and behavioral methods should be conducted to transfer knowledge and to increase sensitivity of managers to the differences in communication, marketing, Silent language, business etiquette, negotiation and business practices in different countries (Goldstein and Ford, 2002).

It is a challenge to communicate and build trusting relationships among each other, especially in other countries (Schumann et al., 2010). Nevertheless, if an interactionist approach which focuses on analysis of different levels is adapted managing cross cultural relationships would be far easier (Dupuis, 2013).

References

CNBC. (2018). Why Starbucks Failed In Australia. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FGUkxn5kZQ (Accessed: 12^th May 2021).

Dupuis, J. (2014). New approaches in cross-cultural management research: The importance of context and meaning in the perception of management styles. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management. 14(1). pp. 67–84. doi: 10.1177/1470595813501476.

Goldstein, I. and Ford, K. (2002). Training in Organizations: Needs Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. 4^th edn. Belmont: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.

Hofstede, G. (2021). What about Sri Lanka? Hofstede Insights. Available at: https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country/sri-lanka/ (Accessed: 12^th May 2021).

Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede Model in Context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture. 2(1). pp. 1-26. Available at: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss1/8 (Accessed: 12^th May 2021).

Irfan, M. (2016). Cultural Dimensions of Hofstede and Their Impact on Organizational Performance in Sri Lanka. 2(10).pp. 1160-1169. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308335168_Cultural_Dimensions_of_Hofstede_and_Their_Impact_on_Organizational_Performance_in_Sri_Lanka (Accessed: 12^th May 2021).

Jayatilleke, G. and Gunawardena, C. (2016). Cultural perceptions of online learning: transnational faculty perspectives. Asian Association of Open University Journals. 11(1). pp. 50-63. doi: 10.1108/AAOUJ-07-2016-0019.

Lassere, P. (2012).Global Strategic Management. 3^rd edn. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Maxwell, G., McDougall, M. and Blair, S. (2009). Managing diversity in the hotel sector: the emergence of a service quality opportunity. Journal of Service Theory and Practice. 10 (6). pp. 367-373. doi: 10.1108/09604520010351176.

Moran, R., Harris, P. and Moran, S. (2011). Managing Cultural Differences: Global Leadership Strategies for Cross-cultural Business Success. 8^th edn. Oxford: Elsevier Inc.

Robbins, S. and Judge, T. (2013). Organizational Behavior. 15^th edn. United States: Pearson Education.

Schumann, J., Wangenheim, F., Stringfellow, A., Yang, Z., Praxmarer, S., Jiménez, F., Blazevic, V., Shannon, R. and Komor, M. (2010). Drivers of Trust in Relational Service Exchange: Understanding the Importance of Cross-Cultural Differences. Journal of Service Research. 13(4). pp. 453–468. doi: 10.1177/1094670510368425.

Soderberg, A. and Holden, N. (2002). Rethinking Cross Cultural Management in a Globalizing Business World. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management. 2(1). pp. 103-121. doi: 10.1177/147059580221007.

Testa, M. (2009). National culture, leadership and citizenship: Implications for cross-cultural management. International Journal of Hospitality Management. 28(1). pp. 78-85. doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.04.002.

Overview

The increasing interest of spiritual values in organizational context has been researched by many academics due to the positive results it has brought to the organizations (Sass, 2000). Shellenbarger (2000, as citied in Milimann et al., 2003) also asserts that spirituality has become a growing business trend in the 21^st century.

Due to the growing importance of spirituality, this post aims to identify spirituality and the benefits it entitles.

Workplace spirituality defined

‘Workplace spirituality recognizes that people have an inner life that nourishes and is nourished by meaningful work in the context of community’ (Robbins and Judge, 2013, p.529).

Similarly, Asmos and Duchon (2000) exerts that spirituality is recognizing individuals in the organization as humans who has both mind and spirit and understanding that measures to develop spirituality is just as vital as developing the minds of them.

Kochukalam (2018) asserts that as illustrated in Figure 1, the foundation of workplace spirituality consists of an inner need (transcendence) for fulfillment together with a connection and purpose for work (to belong to a community, belonging at work).

Importance of Spirituality

The following benefits exists in a culture that promotes spirituality:

Spirituality leads to high personal and psychological well-being (Fry and Slocum, 2008).

Similarly, (Garcia-zamar, 2003) asserts that spirituality creates a win-win solution for organizations and employees where performance is enhanced.
Enables sustainable competitive advantage through high creativity and flexibility (Benefiel, 2003).

However, Bell and Taylor (2003, p. 332) argues that spirituality is a mechanism implemented by organizations to control the employees as ‘workplace spirituality ensures that the search for meaning is harnessed to specific organizational purposes’.

Value Framework of Spirituality

Table 1 depicts the value framework of workplace spirituality where organizational cultures that exhibits positive characteristics of Benevolence, Generativity, Humanism, Integrity, Justice, Mutuality, Receptivity, Respect, Responsibility and trust portrays a spiritual organization (Jurkiewicz and Gicalone, 2004).

Figure 1: Value Framework of workplace Spirituality

Positive	Values of Spirituality	Negative
Kindness towards others and an orientation to promote their happiness and prosperity of employees and other stakeholders within the work context.	Benevolence	Employee’s feelings have no relevance in the work environment, their happiness and prosperity are their own concern.
Long-term focus, showing a concern for the consequences of one’s actions into the future; respectful of future generations	Generativity	Concerned with immediate reward without regard for long-term consequences
Practices and policies that assert the essential dignity and worth of each employee; provides an opportunity for personal growth conjunction with organizational goals	Humanism	Lacking mercy or kindness; cruel; impersonal, cold; unconcerned with the needs of employees as human beings; lacking warmth or geniality
Uncompromising adherence to a code of conduct; sincerity, honesty, candor; exercising unforced power	Integrity	Organizational members can act deceptive, expedient, artificial, shallow, politically manipulative and are inconsistent in following a code of conduct
Even-handed treatment and judgment of employees; impartial, fair, honest; unbiased assignment of rewards and punishments	Justice	Dishonest, faithless; wrongful or biased in judgment
All employees are interconnected and mutually dependent, each contributes to the final output by working in conjunction	Mutuality	Employees are separate and distinct free agents responsible for their own output irrespective of others’ efforts, time spent interacting with others is dictated by necessity
Open-minded, flexible thinking, orientation toward calculated risk-taking, rewards creativity	Receptivity	Enforces one right way to do things, discourages questioning and innovation; punishes behavior outside the norm.
Regard and treat employees with esteem and value; showing consideration and concern for others	Respect	Demonstrates disesteem and contempt for employees; uncivil, discourteous to others
Independently follows through on goal attainment irrespective of difficulty or obstacles; concerned with doing what’s right rather than the right thing	Responsibility	Shirks work and follows through only insofar as forced to do so; does not exert effort independent of external controls
Being able to confidently depend on the character and truth of the organization and its representatives	Trust	Character, truth, maintenance of obligations and promises is at the discretion of individual organizational members as predicated by their personal gain

(Source: Jurkiewicz and Gicalone, 2004, p.131)

xz As people spend a prominent portion of time at the workplace, Video 1 describes seven tips on how one can practice spirituality at the workplace:

Video 1: Seven values to practice spirituality at work

(Source: Mind Spark, 2017)

When considering the dimensions of spirituality mentioned above; spirituality is a combination of finding one’s own purpose, a sense of belonging and deeper values (Gibbons, 2000). Therefore, organizations must focus on creating an organizational culture that enhances spirituality of the employees.

References

Ashmos, D. and Duchon, D. (2000). Spirituality at work: A conceptualization and Measure. Journal of Management Inquiry. 9(2). pp. 134-145. doi: 10.1177/105649260092008.

Bell, E. and Taylor, S. (2003). The Elevation of Work: Pastoral Power and the New Age Work Ethic. 10(2). Organization. pp. 329-349. doi: 10.1177/1350508403010002009.

Benefiel, M. (2003). Mapping the terrain of spirituality in organizations research. Journal of Organizational Change Management. 16(4). pp. 367-377. doi: 10.1108/09534810310484136.

Garcia-zamor, J. (2003). Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance. Public Administration Review. 63(3). pp. 355-363. doi: 10.1111/1540-6210.00295.

Gibbons, P. (2019). Spirituality at work: Definitions, measures, assumptions, and validity claims. Work and Spirit: A Reader of New Spiritual Paradigms for Organizations. pp. 111-131.

Fry, L. and Slocum, J. (2008). Maximizing the Triple Bottom Line through Spiritual Leadership. Organizational Dynamics. 37(1). pp. 86-96. doi: 10.1016/j.orgdyn.2007.11.004.

Jurkiewicz, C. and Giacalone, R. (2004). A Values Framework for Measuring the Impact of Workplace Spirituality on Organizational Performance. Journal of Business Ethics. 49(1). pp. 129-142. doi: 10.1023/B:BUSI.0000015843.22195.b9.

Kochukalam, C. (2018). Workplace Spirituality – A Transcending Experience. Global Journal of Commerce & Management Perspective. 7(1). pp. 20-22. doi: 10.24105/gjcmp.7.1.1804.

Millimann, J., Czaplewski, A. and Ferguson, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and employee work attitudes: An exploratory empirical assessment. Journal of Organizational Change Management. 16(4). pp. 426-447. doi: 10.1108/09534810310484172.

Mind Spark. (2017). Practice Spirituality in the Workplace - Mind Spark Videos. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsG5RbyQ110 (Accessed: 11^th May 2021).

Robbins, S. and Judge, T. (2013). Organizational Behavior. 15^th edn. United States: Pearson Education.

Sass, J. (2000). Characterizing Organization Spirituality: An Organizational Communication Culture Approach’, Communication Studies. 51(3). pp. 195–217. doi: 0.1080/10510970009388520.

Overview

The 21^st century has made people closer than ever before with improvements in telecommunication technology and transportation together with globalization which connected the whole world together (Saxena, 2014). Due to these advancements, the working environment has also become more diverse with an integration of all individuals with various differences (Inegbedion, 2020).

Therefore, this post aims to identify the background of diversity and how organizational culture can facilitate a diverse workforce by successfully managing them.

Diversity defined

Diversity can be defined as ‘any significant difference that distinguishes one individual from another’ (Kreitz, 2008, p.102).

‘Workforce diversity refers to the composition of work units in terms of the cultural or demographic characteristics that are salient and symbolically meaningful in the relationships among group members’ (Di-Tomaso et al., 2007, p. 474).

Levels of Diversity

There are two layers of diversity which consists of deep level diversity and surface level diversity (Gardenswatz and Rowe, 1994 as cited in Huszczo and Endres, 2013).

Figure 1: Levels of Diversity

(Source: Huszczo and Endres, 2013)

Surface-Level Diversity

This implies the difference of individuals based on easily visible demographic characteristics like age, gender, sex, race, ethnicity or disability (Riordon, 2000). In prior research surface- level diversity was considered very important because individuals used easily visible characteristics of themselves and others to categorize them in to social classifications based on their own thinking patterns and attitudes (Fiske, 2000).

Deep-Level Diversity

This consists of the psychological differences of individuals based on personality, attitudes and values that can be known overtime (Harrison et al., 1998 as cited in Kristen and Wang, 2010).

The impact of Diversity

According to Martin (2014, p.89), even though certain challenges such as ‘miscommunication, creation of barriers and dysfunctional adaptation behaviors’ exist in diversity it is mitigated by the benefits it provides. The following points discusses the positive aspects of diversity:

Diversity enhances learning

The insights, skills, and experiences of individuals that belong to different backgrounds can bring valuable ideas that can be used to penetrate certain markets which also enhances the knowledge of peers and company (Ely and Thomas, 2001).

It creates an innovative culture

Gomez-Mejia et al., (2006) proves through his research that creativity, problem solving and flexibility of a diverse organizational culture will encourage innovative ideas of employees. However, Simmons & Rowland (2011) suggests that there should be proper goals and processes to make maximum use of the diverse employees to facilitate innovation.

Diversity Management and methods to implement diversity management strategies

Diversity Management is ‘the systematic and planned commitment by organizations to recruit, retain, reward, and promote a heterogeneous mix of employees’ (Ivancevich and Gilbert, 2000, p. 75)

In order to manage diversity successfully, ‘diversity must be part of an organization's strategic business objective’ (Aghazadeh, 2004).

Below are some methods to manage diversity successfully:

Recruiting, selecting, and retaining diverse employees

When recruiting, advertisements should be promoted in such a manner that underrepresented demographic parties would be attracted and keen on applying to the position (Avery, 2003).

In the selection process, organizations should have fair and unbiased protocols where managers possess awareness to focus on the abilities, talents and skills of the individuals without giving focus to demographic differences (Buckley et al., 2007).

Career advancements should be provided based on their talent and experience irrespective of their differences of personalities (Schaubroeck and Lam, 2002).

Focusing on group activities

When different individuals come together as a group, the manager should act as leader to emphasize that everyone is working towards achieving common goals and objectives to complete a task successfully (Homan et al., 2017).

Diversity Programs

Organizations needs to focus on programs where managers are engaged in creating diversity through college recruitment programs and mentoring, rotating them in various departments to open them to various individuals and social accountability (Dobbin and Kalev, 2016).

Video 1 entails how Apple Inc. has embraced diversity of individuals to create innovative better products.

Video 1: Diversity at Apple Inc.

Source: (Apple, 2017)

When taking in to consideration how an organizational culture that facilitates diversity can benefit, it is extremely important for organizations to build an organizational culture that inspires and attracts capable individuals from different backgrounds to work in organizations that makes them feel accepted and capable (Panda, 2010).

References

Aghazadeh, S. (2004). Managing workforce diversity as an essential resource for improving organizational performance. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management. 53(6). pp. 521-531. doi: 10.1108/17410400410556183.

Apple, (2017). Apple — Inclusion & Diversity — Open. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cvb49-Csq1o (Accessed: 7^th May 2021).

Avery, D. (2003). Reactions to Diversity in Recruitment Advertising: Are the Differences Black and White?. Journal of Applied Psychology. 88(4). pp. 672–679. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.67.

Buckley, R., Jackson, K., Bolino, M., Veres J. and Hubert, F. (2007). The influence of relational demography on panel interview ratings: A field experiment. Personnel Psychology. 60(3). pp. 627–646. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00086.x.

DiTomaso, N., Post, C. and Parks-Yancy, R. (2007). Workforce Diversity and Inequality: Power, Status, and Numbers. Annual Review of Sociology. 33(1). pp. 473-501. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131805.

Dobbin, F. and Kalev, A. (2016). Spotlight on building a diverse organization: Why diversity programs fail. Harvard Business Review. Available at: https://stratserv.co/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Why-Diversity-Programs-Fail.pdf (Accessed: 8^th May 2021).

Ely, R. and Thomas, D. (2001). Cultural Diversity at Work: The Effects of Diversity Perspectives on Work Group Processes and Outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly. 46(2). pp. 229-273. doi: 10.2307/2667087.

Gomez-Mejia, L., Balkin, D., and Cardy, R. (2007). Managing human resources. 5^th edn. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Homan, A., Hollenbeck, J., Humphrey, S., Knippenberg, D., Ilgen, D. and Van Kleef, G. (2017). Facing Differences With an Open Mind: Openness to Experience, Salience of Intragroup Differences, and Performance of Diverse Work Groups. Academy of Management Journal. 51(6). pp. 1204-1222. doi: 10.5465/amj.2008.35732995.

Huszczo, G. and Endres, M. (2013). Joint Effects of Gender and Personality on Choice of Happiness Strategies. Europe’s Journal of Psychology. 9(1). pp. 136-149. doi: 10.5964/ejop.v9i1.536.

Inegbideon, H., Sunday, E. Asaleye, A., Lawal, A. and Adebanji, A. (2020). Managing Diversity for Organizational Efficiency. SAGE Open. doi: 10.1177/2158244019900173.

Ivancevich, J. and Gilbert, J. (2000). Diversity management: Time for a new approach. Public Personnel Management. 29(1). pp. 75–92. doi:10.1177/009102600002900106.

Fiske, S. (2000). Interdependence and the reduction of prejudice. The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology. pp. 115–135.

Kreitz, P, (2008). Best Practices for Managing Organizational Diversity. The Journal of Academic Librarianship. pp. 101-120. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2007.12.001.

Kristen, K. and Wang, M. (2010). Deep-Level Diversity and Leadership. American Psychologist. 65(9). pp. 932-934. doi: 10.1037/a0021355.

Martin, G. (2014). The Effects of Cultural Diversity in the Workplace. Journal of Diversity Management. 9(2). pp.89-92.

Panda, S. (2010). Managing cultural diversity-strategies for organizational success. Journal of Contemporary Research in Management. pp. 9-17. Available at: https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?hl=en&volume=2010&publication_year=2010&pages=9-17&author=S.+Panda&title=Managing+cultural+diversity-strategies+for+organizational+success (Accessed: 7^th May 2021).

Riordon, C. (2000). Relational demography within groups: Past developments, contradictions, and new directions. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management. 19. pp. 131-173. doi:10.1016/S0742-7301(00)19005-X.

Saxena, A. (2014). Workforce Diversity: A Key to Improve Productivity. Procedia Economics and Finance. 11. pp. 76-85. doi: 10.1016/S2212-5671(14)00178-6.

Schaubroeck, J. and Lam, S. (2002). How similarity to peers and supervisor influences organizational advancement in different cultures. Academy of Management Journal. 45(6). pp. 1120–1136. doi: 10.2307/3069428.

Simons, S. and Rowland, K. (2011). Diversity and its Impact on Organizational Performance: The Influence of Diversity Constructions on Expectations and Outcomes. Journal of Technology Management & Innovation. 6(3). pp. 172-183. doi: 10.4067/S0718-27242011000300013.

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